In seventeenth century France, few phrases were more sinister than ‘I am not satisfied with the behaviour of…’ This statement, whether expressed by the king verbally or in writing, amounted to nothing less than an order for the person so named to be arrested and imprisoned, sometimes for life, usually without trial. As he embarked upon the period known as his personal rule, Louis XIV’s use of this sentence initiated a series of events that would lead to his becoming absolute monarch.
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| Louis XIV by Le Brun |
The death of his first minister and mentor, Cardinal Mazarin, in March 1661, opened the way for Louis to achieve his long-cherished ambition: to rule alone. He was now twenty-two years old, recently married and soon to become a father. He was more than ready to take power into his own hands.
Although he decided
against having a premier minister to manage state affairs on his behalf, he did
continue to use the council of ministers already in place. They were Pierre
Séguier, chancellor; Michel Le Tellier, minister for war; Hughes de Lionne,
minister for foreign affairs; and Nicolas Foucquet, superintendent of finances.
They would advise him as and when he required, but final decisions and courses
of action would rest with the king alone.
Louis made an
announcement to this effect at a council meeting that took place on the morning
following Mazarin’s death. It reversed a system that had been in place since
Cardinal Richelieu had begun conducting the affairs of Louis XIII in 1624. Most
of the councillors accepted this decision. Whatever their thoughts on the
matter, they kept them private. Foucquet, on the other hand, took the news
badly. He had expected to replace Mazarin as premier minister, a view shared by
several others. His ambition thwarted, he consoled himself with the belief that
the young king, who hitherto had preferred gallantry, dancing and playing the
guitar to government, would soon tire of the task he had set himself and, at
that point, Foucquet would step in.
Foucquet would have been a good candidate for such a post. He had considerable experience. He had been faithful to Mazarin and the crown during the Fronde - a series of uprisings by an aristocracy seeking to re-establish itself in what it considered to be its rightful place in government. Through his immense personal wealth, Foucquet could offer significant financial support to the crown, as he had done on many occasions previously. Despite this, Louis did not trust him, and, by May 1661, he had decided to remove him from office.
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| Nicolas Foucquet by Le Brun |
The reasons for
Foucquet’s fall are complex, but the main points are these: 1, Louis came to suspect
that Foucquet was mismanaging the finances for his own personal gain. 2, Foucquet’s
patronage of the arts and fondness for magnificence, privileges usually
associated with kingship, threatened to eclipse the king’s own glory. 3, Louis was
uneasy about how powerful Foucquet had become. The minister had amassed a large
following of supporters and hangers-on that amounted almost to a court of his
own. Coupled with his various activities based at his stronghold on the island
of Belle-Isle, Foucquet could become a threat: He could, should he so choose,
instigate a new Fronde, a scenario the king feared most. Louis came to believe
that removing Foucquet from office would not be enough. Instead, he would be
arrested, tried and executed. Louis decided that Foucquet would be arrested in
the autumn at Nantes, where a provincial assembly was due to be held. As superintendent,
Foucquet was required to attend.
The selection of the
arresting officer posed more of a problem. Since Foucquet was a political
figure, his arrest would normally fall to the captain of the Gardes du corps, a
post then held by Léon Potier, duc de Gesvres. However, Louis knew that Gesvres
was numbered among Foucquet’s network of friends, supporters and clients. He dared
not entrust such a sensitive commission to him in case he should inform
Foucquet and allow him to escape.
Louis required a trustworthy man to carry out the task of arresting so powerful a minister. His choice fell upon Charles de Batz Castelmore d’Artagnan, at the time sub-lieutenant of the first company of the King’s Musketeers. D’Artagnan had remained faithful to the crown during the Fronde. He had served Mazarin in various missions. Above all, he was a musketeer, a regiment of which the king was especially proud. Louis, who had known d’Artagnan personally for many years, had every reason to believe that he would carry out his orders diligently and discreetly. As it was, Louis’s decision to commission d’Artagnan to arrest Foucquet provoked Gesvres. The captain was unhappy at having been overlooked and offended by the implication that he would put his friendship for Foucquet above his duty to the king. Louis understood this, but he could not take risks.
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| D'Artagnan, Dumas statue, Paris |
Louis arrived at
Nantes on 1 September 1661 and took up lodgings in the Château des ducs de Bretagne.
He sent for d’Artagnan to issue him with his orders. As it happened, the
musketeer was ill in bed with a fever, but he made his way to the château
despite this. When Louis saw how ill he was, however, he sent him back to his
lodgings until he had recovered. It is a testament to the king’s faith in
d’Artagnan that he preferred to delay matters rather than assign another man.
In due course,
d’Artagnan recovered sufficiently to return to duty. Having arrived at the
château, Louis gave him his orders verbally before handing him a packet
containing the lettre de cachet that served as Foucquet’s arrest warrant, instructions
on how he was to proceed and the route he was to take to escort his prisoner back
to Paris. Under strict orders to maintain secrecy, d’Artagnan was sent to Michel
Le Tellier, the minister for war, for further clarification. Upon his arrival, d’Artagnan
found the minister in the company of several courtiers. Speaking aloud, he announced
that the king had sent him for despatches. Le Tellier, recognising this as a
signal, promptly dismissed the courtiers and took d’Artagnan into his private
cabinet.
At this point,
d’Artagnan apparently became overwhelmed by the import of his commission – to
arrest a man as highly placed and powerful as Foucquet was no small matter. He began
to feel the effects of a new attack of fever, at which point Le Tellier sat him
down and gave him a glass of wine. After discussing his orders, Le Tellier sent
d’Artagnan back to his lodgings with instructions to return early the following
morning when he would arrest Foucquet.
D’Artagnan was
already in place by five o’clock in the morning of 5 September. He was
accompanied by 100 musketeers. In view of d’Artagnan’s continuing illness,
Louis had appointed two ‘gentlemen servants,’ Maupertuis and Clavaux, to assist
him should he need them. As Foucquet arrived, any anxiety he might have felt
upon seeing so many musketeers was dispelled when he learned that Louis planned
to go hunting immediately after the meeting. As his personal guard, the
musketeers would naturally accompany him. With everyone in place, d’Artagnan
and his men could only wait.
Once the assembly ended,
Louis detained Foucquet under the pretext of finding some papers for him. As he
pretended to rummage about on his desk, he glanced out the window to make sure
d’Artagnan was still in place. Satisfied, he dismissed Foucquet. The time had
come.
Two small but
crucial details almost thwarted the operation before it had even got underway. The
first was that d’Artagnan required final confirmation from Le Tellier before he
could proceed. In the event, Le Tellier had been detained and was unavailable
to give the signal. The second detail had to do with the precise location in
which arrest would take place. D’Artagnan was ordered to proceed only when
Foucquet had left the precincts of the château, and so beyond Gesvres’s jurisdiction.
The delay in receiving confirmation allowed Foucquet to access his chair, with
his porters carrying him out of sight as the musketeers looked on helplessly. Angry
and frustrated, d’Artagnan sent Maupertuis to inform Louis. The furious king sent
the adjunct back with the order: ‘find him.’
Meanwhile, d’Artagnan
and fifty or so musketeers pursued Foucquet on foot, catching up with him
outside the cathedral. He stopped the chair and sent Maupertuis to inform the
superintendent that d’Artagnan had a message for him that could not wait. Foucquet
obligingly alighted, upon which d’Artagnan announced: ‘Monsieur, I arrest you
by order of the king.’
For some time, Foucquet had been warned that the king planned to act against him, but he had faith in Louis and refused to believe it. Now, faced with the reality of his situation, he asked to see the order. As he handed it back to d’Artagnan, he requested only that the musketeer should carry out his orders discreetly.
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| Arrest of Foucquet by Druet |
At this point,
d’Artagnan realised he was stranded without a carriage and was forced to take
his prisoner to the nearest house to await transportation and the rest of the
musketeers. Once inside, d’Artagnan sent Clavaux to inform the king that
Foucquet was now in custody.
D’Artagnan searched
Foucquet’s pockets and seized his papers, which were sent on to Louis.
Foucquet, now in a state of shock, was given a cup of bouillon, a gesture of
kindness allowed for in the plan drawn up the king.
From now on,
d’Artagnan was responsible for everything that happened concerning his prisoner.
The prime concern was to maintain secrecy. It was imperative that no one knew
that Foucquet was in custody, still less where he was being held. This was to
prevent his friends and supporters attempting to mount a rescue and to ensure
that crucial documents were not destroyed. For the same reason, d’Artagnan had
to ensure that Foucquet could not pass or receive any messages, or even see
anyone other than those authorised to have any commerce with him. In addition,
d’Artagnan was required to report everything Foucquet did and said, even if he
spoke to d’Artagnan in confidence. Whatever illness and injury there might
arise was dealt with by providing whatever assistance was practical, but the
patient was not to be allowed to leave the prison.
Such secrecy could
never be maintained, however. It soon became widely known that Foucquet had
been arrested, probably because one of his valets, La Forêt, had escaped the
cordon that had been established and reached Paris before anyone could stop
him. At this point, the people blamed Foucquet for the hardships they were
facing in their everyday lives. As the superintendent of finances, they were
ready to believe that his vast wealth had been amassed at their expense. As
d’Artagnan moved his prisoner from one château to another, he had to protect
Foucquet against death threats.
Security, therefore, was a vital as secrecy. D’Artagnan travelled in the same carriage with Foucquet, accompanied by Maupertuis, Clavaux and another, unnamed musketeer. The journey to Paris naturally required several overnight stops at various châteaux on the way. As they arrived at each one, d’Artagnan inspected the buildings to ensure that they were fully secure.
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| Château d'Angers |
Louis had also
arranged for a two-month stay at Angers. Here, d’Artagnan took advantage of permission
to order necessary repairs to the drawbridges and battlements. He also required
a chapel to be prepared for the prisoner’s use. Having inspected each room, he selected
one he thought would offer the best security. As it happened, it overlooked the
moat, which fell in line with the plan set down by Louis. D’Artagnan was
required never to leave Foucquet alone, which meant he had to sleep in his
room. To assist with the general security, d’Artagnan posted musketeers at the
entrances and outside windows.
Occasionally,
however, Foucquet was granted permission to write to his wife, provided he
confined himself to domestic matters. D’Artagnan was instructed to provide him
with writing materials and to forward his letters unsealed to the king. In one
instance, Foucquet gave a diamond to d’Artagnan, requesting him to send it to
the king to be sold, with the proceeds to be given to the poor. As it happened,
his request was granted.
Despite the security
measures already in place, Foucquet had still managed to write to his wife
without authority and slip messages out to some of his supporters. The prisoner
was deemed to be difficult, and d’Artagnan was assigned more musketeers to help
him. These included Saint-Leger and Saint-Mars, both maréchaux de logis of the musketeers
Another of
d’Artagnan’s duties was to look after the catering. He had to furnish the room Foucquet
was to use and provide for such essentials as food, heating and laundry. This
was a simple matter of purchasing items from local merchants.
Soon, d’Artagnan would
be required to look after and cater for additional persons. Louis had deemed
that Foucquet should be allowed the services of his own valet de chambre, a man
named Lavallée, who had served him for some years. Similarly, his personal
physician, Pecquet, was brought in to attend him. D’Artagnan had to cater for all
three, but Louis had provided him with 1,000 louis d’or for this purpose.
In late November,
d’Artagnan received another prisoner. This was Paul Pellisson, Foucquet’s
secretary, who had been arrested at the same time as Foucquet and had been held
at the château de Nantes since that time. D’Artagnan was to observe the same
security measures as he did with Foucquet, and to ensure that the prisoners had
no contact with each other.
Pellisson’s arrival
marked the end of the sojourn at Angers. D’Artagnan received orders to set out
with Foucquet, his valet and physician for the next stop on the way to Paris, Amboise.
Pellisson was to travel with them, with Foucquet and his small entourage enjoying
the relative luxury of a carriage, while Pellisson travelled on horseback.
At Amboise, which
the party reached on 4 December, d’Artagnan passed Foucquet and his servants
into the hands of Talhouet, an ensign of the Gardes du corps. He then pressed
on to Paris, dropping off Pellisson at the Bastille on 12 December. Now, after
more than three months as a gaoler, d’Artagnan was discharged of this distasteful,
thankless and stressful duty. The necessary papers having already been drawn up,
he was ordered to report to the king and resume his regular duties.
At this point, d’Artagnan had reason to believe that his days guarding prisoners were over. Alas, this was not to be the case. Unfortunately for all concerned, Talhouet did not live up to expectation, largely because he could not get on with Roger de Canalès de Marsac, the governor of Vincennes where Foucquet was now being held. Louis feared that this situation threatened to compromise the security of the prisoner. His solution was to return d’Artagnan to the post of gaoler, guarding Foucquet, Pecquet and Lavallée.
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| Château de Vincennes |
D’Artagnan arrived
at Vincennes on 4 January with orders to continue the measures he had taken at
Angers. He was accompanied by two maréchaux de logis. Whether they were
Saint-Leger and Saint-Mars is not known for certain, although there is reason
to believe that Saint-Mars was indeed one of them, as shall be seen. On this
occasion, d’Artagnan was not put to any trouble to find suitable furnishings
for his charges. The chambers were furnished using items taken from Foucquet’s
own mansion at Saint-Mandé, the gardens of which backed onto those of Vincennes.
From this point on, and for the next three years, d’Artagnan would rarely be apart
from Foucquet.
As each stage of the
proceedings against Foucquet unfolded, d’Artagnan was kept informed. In 1662, Louis
established a chambre de justice to try the case, and several of the
commissionaires required access to Foucquet at various times. D’Artagnan would allow
or deny them admittance according to the king’s orders. He played a similar
role when Foucquet was eventually allowed access to lawyers.
Throughout his
tenure as gaoler, d’Artagnan showed great compassion towards his prisoner. This
was manifested in such areas as ensuring Foucquet had a comfortable bed, but
his compassion extended beyond creature comforts. As he undertook one particular
journey with Foucquet, d’Artagnan was ordered not to stop for any reason while
on the road. This was standard procedure, but, on one occasion, d’Artagnan
noticed Foucquet’s wife and four young children waiting by the road. Obeying
his instructions to the letter, he did not stop the coach. Instead, he ordered
the driver to slow down sufficiently to allow Foucquet to kiss his family
before speeding up again to continue the journey. This was a tremendous
gesture. It provided a boost to Foucquet’s morale, spurring him on to fight his
cause with greater fervour.
At the beginning of
his imprisonment, Foucquet had been denied access to his papers and deprived of
writing materials. This was standard in such cases, but Foucquet had found a
way round it. He initially refused to speak to any of the commissionaires from
the chambre de justice, staying silent as they tried to question him. In
the end, it was decided he should be tried as a mute. This ingenious strategy
resulted in Foucquet being allowed the materials he wanted – it also provided
him with the means to begin writing a series of pamphlets in his defence. It is
not clear whether d’Artagnan knew of this and merely turned a blind eye, or
whether Foucquet managed to write such a large amount of work without
d’Artagnan knowing. Either way, by the time Foucquet was allowed to speak with
his own lawyers, they obligingly smuggled out the defences, which would
eventually be published in several volumes.
When Louis granted
permission for Foucquet to take the air, d’Artagnan was instructed to take him
to the roof terrace of the château, where the two of them would walk. The
question must be asked, therefore, were d'Artagnan and Foucquet friends?
Because d’Artagnan
and Foucquet had both served the late Cardinal Mazarin, they certainly knew
each other, but they were not friends, nor were they enemies. However, this situation
would change in time. That they lived in such close proximity could have led to
dislike of each other or even enmity. As it was, it appeared to have had the
opposite effect, with Foucquet even confiding in d’Artagnan. As the formal
stage of the trial drew near, Foucquet told d’Artagnan that he was ready to
face his judges. For his part, d’Artagnan took an interest in the proceedings
and came to evince genuine sympathy for his prisoner’s plight.
In the autumn of 1664, Foucquet’s trial entered its final phase, that of a formal hearing in a court of law. The chambre de justice moved into the Arsenal, while Foucquet was lodged at the Bastille. It was only a short walk from his prison to the Arsenal, with the prisoner and d’Artagnan walking side by side, while forty or fifty musketeers followed several paces behind, armed and ready to fire. On one occasion, Foucquet stopped to speak to some workmen who were building a fountain. He turned to the puzzled d’Artagnan and explained that he used to understand these matters. Once again, this is a testament to the relationship that had developed between the two men over the past three years. Foucquet’s side-step could have resulted in his being killed by the musketeers, but d’Artagnan knew and trusted him well enough to show leniency.
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| La Bastille |
A week after this
incident, d’Artagnan was walking his prisoner back to his prison when he
noticed some of Foucquet’s friends watching from a distance. Foucquet was absorbed
in his own thoughts, so d’Artagnan gave him a nudge and alerted him to their
presence. A small act of kindness that, once again, lifted his prisoner’s
spirits.
Shortly before the
verdict was due, a comet appeared in the skies over Paris. D’Artagnan took an
interest in the comet and went to the roof to get a better view. He then
returned to awake Foucquet and take him out with him, another sign of the
friendship they had come to share.
On the day Foucquet
was due to hear the verdict, d’Artagnan led him into the prison chapel, so that
the court officials had to read it out to him there. This seemingly innocuous
gesture was, in fact, an act of defiance because it obliged Foucquet to receive
them uncovered; that is, hatless. As such, it went against the accepted norms
and accorded with Foucquet’s consistent refusal to acknowledge the legitimacy
of the court that had been established to try him.
In the event,
Foucquet had been found guilty of certain financial irregularities and
sentenced to banishment from the kingdom and confiscation of his property.
Louis, displeased with this, changed the sentence to life imprisonment in
solitary confinement. It was this latter sentence that was read out to Foucquet.
However,
d’Artagnan’s compassion did not extend only to Foucquet, but also to the two
men who had served him so faithfully during his long ordeal, Lavallée and
Pecquet. Throughout the entire process, they, as well as Foucquet, had expected
that the outcome would be a guilty verdict and execution. On the day of the
verdict, they were separated from him and left alone to think the worst.
D’Artagnan saw their obvious distress and went to comfort them, assuring them
that their master was saved.
One of the lawyers
appointed to the Chambre was Olivier Lefèvre d’Ormesson. A man of
integrity, he was adamant that Foucquet should be treated fairly. This stance
was to cost him his career. D’Artagnan recognised his sacrifice and told him ‘that
he would not hear anything about this whole affair here, and that as soon as he
was back, he would come and talk’ to Ormesson.
Here, d’Artagnan alluded
to his new orders – to escort Foucquet to Pignerol, a fortress and garrison in
Piedmont that was to serve as his prison. While d’Artagnan could have been
excused from this daunting task, he felt it his duty. Ormesson saw that the
prospect of so difficult a journey made the musketeer unhappy. It could have
been worse, though, for d’Artagnan might have been appointed to the post of gaoler
there, too. This would have meant remaining at Pignerol until Foucquet died. As
it was, d’Artagnan’s maréchal de logis, Saint-Mars, was selected for the
position, possibly because he had demonstrated his capability and aptitude while
assisting d’Artagnan.
The journey through France and across the Alps into Italy was long and difficult. It was full winter, and the terrain was slow, cold and dangerous. D’Artagnan ensured that Foucquet, sitting in the comfortless carriage, was provided with furs to keep him warm. He also did his best to reassure the prisoner, urging him to keep up his spirits and his courage and all would go well. There was, apparently, some hope of mitigation, at least among Foucquet’s friends, and d’Artagnan was in contact with the king through a regular exchange of letters. This, however, was not to be.
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| Pignerol |
The journey to
Pignerol took three weeks, but d’Artagnan’s duties did not end when he reached
his destination. He inspected the two chambers that had been selected for
Foucquet’s use and found them unsatisfactory. He ordered Saint-Mars to prepare
a third chamber, and stayed on in the town, inspecting the works every day
until he was satisfied that Foucquet, cut off from his loved ones and
supporters, should at least have comfortable lodgings.
D’Artagnan then made
his way back to Paris, his duties as gaoler at an end. It had been a difficult
and unhappy commission, but he had acquitted himself with a perfect balance of humanity
and professionalism. Leaving behind a man who had become a friend, he returned
to his rightful place in the service of the king in the regiment of the
musketeers.
